Fat

Definition

Fats are organic compounds that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are a source of energy in foods. Fats belong to a group of substances called lipids, and come in liquid or solid form. All fats are combinations of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

Overview & Functions

Fat is one of the 3 nutrients (along with protein and carbohydrates) that supply calories to the body. Fat provides 9 calories per gram, more than twice the number provided by carbohydrates or protein.
Fat is essential for the proper functioning of the body. Fats provide essential fatty acids, which are not made by the body and must be obtained from food. The essential fatty acids are linoleic and linolenic acid. They are important for controlling inflammation, blood clotting, and brain
development.

Fat serves as the storage substance for the body's extra calories. It fills the fat cells (adipose tissue) that help insulate the body. Fats are also an important energy source. When the body has used up the calories from carbohydrates, which occurs after the first 20 minutes of exercise, it begins to depend on the calories from fat.
Healthy skin and hair are maintained by fat. Fat helps the body absorb and move the vitamins A, D, E, and K through the bloodstream.

Food Sources

SATURATED FATS
These are the biggest dietary cause of high LDL levels ("bad cholesterol"). When looking at a food label, pay very close attention to the percentage of saturated fat and avoid or limit any foods that are high. Saturated fat should be limited to 10% of calories. Saturated fats are found in animal products such as butter, cheese, whole milk, ice cream, cream, and fatty meats. They are also found in some vegetable oils -- coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils. (Note: Most other vegetable oils contain unsaturated fat and are healthy.)


UNSATURATED FATS
Fats that help to lower blood cholesterol if used in place of saturated fats. However, unsaturated fats have a lot of calories, so you still need to limit them. Most (but not all) liquid vegetable oils are unsaturated. (The exceptions include coconut, palm, and palm kernel oils.) There are two types of unsaturated fats:

• Monounsaturated fats: Examples include olive and canola oils.
• Polyunsaturated fats: Examples include fish, safflower, sunflower, corn, and soybean oils.

TRANS FATTY ACIDS
These fats form when vegetable oil hardens (a process called hydrogenation) and can raise LDL levels. They can also lower HDL levels ("good cholesterol"). Trans fatty acids are found in fried foods, commercial baked goods (donuts, cookies, crackers), processed foods, and margarines.
HYDROGENATED AND PARTIALLY HYDROGENATED FATS
This refers to oils that have become hardened (such as hard butter and margarine). Partially hydrogenated means the oils are only partly hardened. Foods made with hydrogenated oils should be avoided because they contain high levels of trans fatty acids, which are linked to heart disease. (Look at the ingredients in the food label.)

Recommendations

• Choose lean, protein-rich foods such as soy, fish, skinless chicken, very lean meat, and fat-free or 1% dairy products.
• Eat foods that are naturally low in fat such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables.
• Get plenty of soluble fiber such as oats, bran, dry peas, beans, cereal, and rice.
• Limit fried foods, processed foods, and commercially prepared baked goods (donuts, cookies, crackers).
• Limit animal products such as egg yolks, cheeses, whole milk, cream, ice cream, and fatty meats (and large portions of meats).
• Look at food labels, especially the level of saturated fat. Avoid or limit foods high in saturated fat.
• Look on food labels for words like "hydrogenated" or "partially hydrogenated" -- these foods are loaded with bad fats and should be avoided.
• Liquid vegetable oil, soft margarine, and trans fatty acid-free margarine are preferable to butter, stick margarine, or shortening.

Children under age 2 should NOT be on a fat-restricted diet because cholesterol and fat are thought to be important nutrients for brain development.
It is important to read the nutrition labels and be aware of the amount of different types of fat contained in food. If you are 20, ask your health care provider about checking your cholesterol levels.

Side Effects

Eating too much saturated fat is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. A diet high in saturated fat causes a soft, waxy substance called cholesterol to build up in the arteries. Too much fat also increases the risk of heart disease because of its high calorie content, which increases the chance of becoming obese (another risk factor for heart disease and some types of cancer).
 A large intake of polyunsaturated fat may increase the risk for some types of cancer. Reducing daily fat intake is not a guarantee against developing cancer or heart disease, but it does help reduce the risk factors.

Omega-3 fatty acids 

Omega-3 fatty acids are a form of polyunsaturated fat that the body derives from food. Omega-3s (and omega-6s) are known as essential fatty acids (EFAs) because they are important for good health. The body cannot make these fatty acids on its own so omega-3s must be obtained from food. These different types of acids can be obtained in foods such as cold-water fish including tuna, salmon, and mackerel. Other important omega 3 fatty acids are found in dark green leafy vegetables, flaxseed oils, and certain vegetable oils.
Omega-3 fatty acids have been found to be beneficial for the heart. Positive effects include anti-inflammatory and anti-blood clotting actions, lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and reducing blood pressure. These fatty acids may also reduce the risks and symptoms for other disorders including diabetes, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, some cancers, and mental decline.
 

Fiber

Definition

Fiber is a substance found in plants. Dietary fiber -- the kind you eat -- is found in fruits, vegetables, and grains. It is an important part of a healthy diet.

Overview & Functions

Dietary fiber adds bulk to your diet. Because it makes you feel full faster, it can be helpful in controlling weight. Fiber aids digestion, helps prevent constipation, and is sometimes used for the  treatment of diverticulosis, diabetes, and heart disease.

Food Sources

There are two forms of fiber: soluble and insoluble.
Soluble fiber attracts water and turns to gel during digestion. This slows digestion. Soluble fiber is found in oat bran, barley, nuts, seeds, beans, lentils, peas, and some fruits and vegetables. Soluble fiber has been scientifically proven to lower cholesterol, which can help prevent heart disease.

 Insoluble fiber is found in foods such as wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains. It appears to speed the passage of foods through the stomach and intestines and adds bulk to the stool.

Recommendations

The average American now eats 10 - 15 grams of fiber per day. The recommendation for older children, adolescents, and adults is 20 - 35 grams per day. Younger children will not be able to eat enough calories to achieve this, but it is a good idea to introduce whole grains, fresh fruits, and other high-fiber foods.
To ensure that you get enough fiber, eat a variety of foods, including:

• Cereals
• Dried beans and peas
• Fruits
• Vegetables
• Whole grains

Add fiber gradually over a period of a few weeks to avoid abdominal discomfort. Water aids the passage of fiber through the digestive system. Drink plenty of fluids (approximately 8 glasses of water or non-caloric fluid a day).
Peeling can reduce the amount of fiber in fruits and vegetables. Eating fiber-containing food is beneficial, whether it is cooked or raw.

Side Effects

Eating a large amount of fiber in a short period of time can cause intestinal gas (flatulence), bloating, and abdominal cramps. This usually goes away once the natural bacteria in the digestive system get used to the increase in fiber in the diet. Adding fiber gradually to the diet, instead of all at one time, can help reduce gas or diarrhea.

 Too much fiber may interfere with the absorption of minerals such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and calcium. However, this effect usually does not cause too much concern because high-fiber foods are typically rich in minerals.

Sources of fiber

The addition of fiber in the diet aids in digestion and helps to avoid constipation. Vegetables, fresh fruits (especially dried fruits) and whole wheat, bran, or oatmeal cereals are excellent sources of fiber. To reap the benefits of fiber, it is very important to drink plenty of fluids.




 

Magnesium in diet

Definition

Magnesium is an essential mineral for human nutrition.

Overview & Functions

Magnesium in the body serves several important functions:

• Contraction and relaxation of muscles
• Function of certain enzymes in the body
• Production and transport of energy
• Production of protein

Food Sources

Most dietary magnesium comes from vegetables, such as dark green, leafy vegetables. Other foods that are good sources of magnesium:

• Fruits or vegetables (such as bananas, dried apricots, and avocados)
• Nuts (such as almonds and cashews)
• Peas and beans (legumes), seeds
• Soy products (such as soy flour and tofu)
• Whole grains (such as brown rice and millet)

Recommendations

These are the recommended daily requirements of magnesium:

• Children
  • 1 - 3 years old: 80 milligrams
  • 4 - 8 years old: 130 milligrams
  • 9 - 13 years old: 240 milligrams
  • 14 - 18 years old (boys): 410 milligrams
  • 14 - 18 years old (girls): 360 milligrams
  
  
• Adult females: 310 - 320 milligrams
• Pregnancy: 350 - 400 milligrams
• Breastfeeding women: 310 - 360 milligrams
• Adult males: 400 - 420 milligrams

Side Effects

Side effects from increased magnesium intake are not common because the body removes excess amounts. Magnesium excess almost always occurs only when magnesium is supplemented as a medication. Lack of magnesium (deficiency) is rare. The symptoms include:
• Hyperexcitability
• Muscle weakness
• Sleepiness
Deficiency of magnesium can occur in people who abuse alcohol or in those who absorb less magnesium due to:
• Burns
• Certain medications
• Low blood levels of calcium
• Problems absorbing nutrients from the intestinal tract (malabsorption)
• Surgery
Symptoms due to a lack of magnesium have three categories. Early symptoms:
• Anorexia
• Apathy
• Confusion
• Fatigue
• Insomnia
• Irritability
• Muscle twitching
• Poor memory
• Reduced ability to learn
Moderate deficiency symptoms:
• Heart (cardiovascular) changes
• Rapid heartbeat
Severe deficiency:
• Continued muscle contraction
• Delirium
• Numbness
• Seeing or hearing things that aren't there (hallucinations)
• Tingling

Selenium in diet

Definition

Selenium is an essential trace mineral. Small amounts of selenium are good for your health.

Overview & Functions

Selenium has a variety of functions. It helps make special proteins, called antioxidant enzymes, which play a role in preventing cell damage. Some medical information suggests that selenium may help prevent certain cancers, but better studies are needed.
There have also been mixed results regarding selenium's impact on cardiovascular disease.

 
Selenium seems to stimulate antibodies after you receive a vaccination. It also may help protect the body from the poisonous effects of heavy metals and other harmful substances.
Selenium may boost fertility, especially among men. The mineral has been shown to improve the production of sperm and sperm movement.

Food Sources

Plant foods, such as vegetables, are the most common dietary sources of selenium. How much selenium is the vegetables you eat depends on how much of the mineral was in the soil where the plants grew.
Fish, shellfish, red meat, grains, eggs, chicken, liver, and garlic are all good sources of selenium. Meats produced from animals that ate grains or plants found in selenium-rich soil have higher levels of selenium.

 Brewer's yeast, wheat germ, and enriched breads are also good sources of selenium.

Recommendations

Selenium is often available in multivitamin and mineral supplements.
The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for selenium:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 15 micrograms per day (mcg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 20 mcg/day

Children

• 1 - 3 years: 20 mcg/day
• 4 - 8 years: 30 mcg/day
• 9 - 13 years: 40 mcg/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males age 14 and older: 55 mcg/day
• Females age 14 and older: 55 mcg/day

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.
Specific recommendations depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk (lactating) need higher amounts. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.

Side Effects

Selenium deficiency is rare in people in the United States. However, selenium deficiency may occur when a person is fed through a vein (IV line) for long periods of time.
Keshan disease is caused by a deficiency of selenium. This leads to an abnormality of the heart muscle. Keshan disease caused many childhood deaths in China until the link to selenium was discovered and selenium supplements were provided.


Two other diseases have been linked to selenium deficiency:

• Kashin-Beck disease, which results in joint and bone disease
• Myxedematous endemic cretinism, which results in mental retardation

Severe gastrointestinal disorders may also affect the body's ability to absorb selenium.
Too much selenium in the blood can cause a condition called selenosis. Selenosis can cause loss of hair, nail problems, nausea, irritability, fatigue, and mild nerve damage. However, selenium toxicity is rare in the United States.

References

Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2000.
Rakel D, ed. Integrative Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Wellness and Prevention. December 2008:35(4);729-747.

Selenium - antioxidant 

  Selenium is an antioxidant which seems to inhibit cell proliferation. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of selenium is 70 ug (micrograms) for men, 55 ug for women.

Copper in diet

Definition

Copper is an essential trace mineral present in all body tissues.

Overview & Functions

Copper, along with iron, helps in the formation of red blood cells. It also helps in keeping the blood vessels, nerves, immune system, and bones healthy.

Food Sources

Oysters and other shellfish, whole grains, beans, nuts, potatoes, and organ meats (kidneys, liver) are good sources of copper. Dark leafy greens, dried fruits such as prunes, cocoa, black pepper, and yeast are also sources of copper in the diet.

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for copper:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 200 micrograms per day (mcg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 220 mcg/day

Children

• 1 - 3 years: 340 mcg/day
• 4 - 8 years: 440 mcg/day
• 9 - 13 years: 700 mcg/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males and females age 14 – 18 years: 890 mcg/day
• Males and females age 19 and older: 900 mcg/day

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.
Specific recommendations depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk (lactating) need higher amounts. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.

Side Effects

Normally people have enough copper in the foods they eat. Menkes disease (kinky hair syndrome) is a very rare disorder of copper metabolism that is present before birth. It occurs in male infants.
Lack of copper may lead to anemia and osteoporosis.
In large amounts, copper is poisonous. A rare inherited disorder, Wilson's disease, causes deposits of copper in the liver, brain, and other organs. The increased copper in these tissues leads to hepatitis, kidney problems, brain disorders, and other problems.

References

Trumbo P, Yates AA, Schlicker S, Poos M. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, The National Academies. Dietary reference intakes: vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. J Am Diet Assoc. 2001 Mar;101(3):294-301.

Vitamin B12

Definition

Vitamin B12 is a water-soluble vitamin. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. After the body uses these vitamins, leftover amounts leave the body through the urine.
Typically, water-soluble vitamins can not be stored by the body. Vitamin B12 is special, because the body can store it for years in the liver.

Overview & Functions

Vitamin B12, like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It helps in the formation of red blood cells and in the maintenance of the central nervous system

.

Food Sources

Vitamin B12 is found in eggs, meat, poultry, shellfish, milk, and milk products.

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for vitamin B 12:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 0.4 micrograms per day (mcg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 0.5 mcg/day

Children

• 1 - 3 years: 0.9 mcg/day
• 4 - 8 years: 1.2 mcg/day
• 9 - 13 years: 1.8 mcg/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males and females age 14 and older: 2.4 mcg/day

Specific recommendations depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk (lactating) need higher amounts. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.
The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.

Side Effects

Vitamin B12 deficiencies occur when the body is unable to properly use the vitamin. Pernicious anemia can make the body unable to absorb vitamin B12 from the intestinal tract.
Because vitamin B12 comes primarily from animal products, people who follow a strict vegetarian or vegan diet and do not consume eggs or dairy products may require vitamin B12 supplements. (Non-animal sources of vitamin B12 exist but are highly variable in their B12 content. They are considered unreliable sources of the vitamin.)


Those who had surgery on specific parts of the small intestine or stomach are also prone to a deficiency if they do not take B12 supplements.
Low levels of B12 can cause anemia, numbness or tingling in the arms and legs, weakness, and loss of balance.

References

Rakel D, ed. Integrative Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Wellness and Prevention. December 2008:35(4);729-747.
Mason JB. Vitamins, trace minerals, and other micronutrients. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 237.

Vitamin B12 benefits 

Vitamin B12 is important for metabolism. Metabolism within the body includes the processes of energy generation and use; including nutrition, digestion, absorption, elimination, respiration, circulation, and temperature regulation.

Vitamin B12 source 

The human body stores several years' worth of vitamin B12, so nutritional deficiency of this vitamin is extremely rare. Although, people who follow a strict vegetarian diet and do not consume eggs or dairy products may require vitamin B12 supplements.
 

 

 

Vitamin D

Definition

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that helps the body absorb calcium. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body's fatty tissue.

Overview & Functions

In addition to helping the body absorb calcium, vitamin D also helps the body keep the right amount of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.

Food Sources

Vitamin D is found in the following foods:

• Dairy products
  • Cheese
  • Butter
  • Cream
  • Fortified milk (all milk in the U.S. is fortified with vitamin D)
• Fish
• Oysters
• Fortified cereals
• Margarine

Recommendations

Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin" because the body manufactures the vitamin after being exposed to sunshine. Ten to 15 minutes of sunshine 3 times weekly is enough to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D. However, many people living in sunny climates still do not make enough vitamin D and need more from their diet or supplementation.


The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for vitamin D as cholecalciferol. (One microgram of cholecalciferol is the same as 40 IU of vitamin D.)
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 5 micrograms per day (mcg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 5 mcg/day

Children

• 1 - 13 years: 5 mcg/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males and Females age 14 to 50: 5 mcg/day
• Males and Females age 51 to 70: 10 mcg/day
• Males and Females age over 70: 15 mcg/day

Specific recommendations for each vitamin depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). In general, those over age 50 need higher amounts of vitamin D than younger persons. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.

Side Effects

Vitamin D deficiency can lead to osteoporosis in adults or rickets in children.
Too much vitamin D can make the intestines absorb too much calcium. This may cause high levels of calcium in the blood. High blood calcium can lead to calcium deposits in soft tissues such as the heart and lungs. This can reduce their ability to function.

 Kidney stones, vomiting, and muscle weakness may also occur if you have too much vitamin D.

References

Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Wellness and Prevention. December 2008:35(4);729-747.
Rakel D, ed. Integrative Medicine. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
Mason JB. Vitamins, trace minerals, and other micronutrients. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 237.

Vitamin D benefit 

  Vitamin D promotes retention and absorption of calcium and phosphorus, primarily in the bones. Too much vitamin D may have the opposite effect of taking calcium from the bones and depositing it in the heart or lungs, reducing their function

Vitamin D deficit 

  Because vitamin D is essential for the body's utilization of calcium, a deficiency may result in severe loss of calcium and consequently a softening and weakening of bones.

 

Chloride in diet

Definition

Chloride is a salt consisting of two elements, one of which is chlorine. Chloride makes up about 0.15% of the body weight and is found in the fluid outside cells.

Overview & Functions

Chloride is needed to keep the proper balance of body fluids. It is an essential part of digestive (stomach) juices.

Food Sources

Chloride is can be found in table salt or sea salt as sodium chloride. It is also found in many vegetables. Foods with higher amounts of chloride include seaweed, rye, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, and olives. Potassium chloride is found in most foods and is usually the main ingredient of salt substitutes.

Recommendations

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.
The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for chloride:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 0.18 grams per day (g/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 0.57 g/day

Children

• 1 - 3 years: 1.5 g/day
• 4 - 8 years: 1.9 g/day
• 9 - 13 years: 2.3 g/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males and females age 14 to 50 years: 2.3 g/day
• Males and females 51 – 70: 2.0 g/day
• Males and females 71 and over: 1.8 g/day

Specific recommendations depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk (lactating) need higher amounts. Older adults need lower amounts. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.
Chloride is readily available in the food supply. In fact, most Americans probably consume more chloride than necessary, in the form of table salt and salt in prepared foods.

Side Effects

Too little chloride in the body can occur with fluid loss. This may be due to excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea. Medicines such as diuretics can also cause a chloride deficiency. Such loss can lead to dehydration, loss of potassium in the urine, and a condition called alkalosis.

References

Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.

Diet - cancer treatment

Definition

People with cancer need special nutritional planning and management.

Overview & Functions

People with cancer are at risk for developing nutritional deficiencies. The deficiencies may be the result of the cancer itself, or the side effects of common cancer treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
Cancer directly affects your nutritional status by changing the body's metabolism and causing you to lose your appetite. Your body increases energy use, which means you need more calories to maintain your current weight and lean body mass. Cancer-associated loss of appetite is probably the result of physical changes but may also be due to a psychological response to the disease.
Cancer also causes individual changes in the body's ability to break down carbohydrates, protein, and fat. These changes lead to the loss of muscle and fat.
Several things may contribute to the type and degree of nutrient deficiencies:

• Where in the body the cancer occurs
• How severe the cancer is at the time of your diagnosis
• What symptoms you have
• The type of cancer treatment, and how often you receive it
• Side effects associated with your cancer treatment
• How the cancer affects your ability to eat and tolerate food and nutrients

 

 

 

 

 

Food Sources

People with cancer frequently require a high-calorie diet to prevent weight loss. They may also need a diet that is high in protein to prevent muscle wasting. Foods that are high in calories and protein include peanut butter, whole milk, milkshakes, meats, and cheeses.
Some individuals with cancer develop an aversion to fats. If this happens, eat high-protein foods with a lower fat content such as low-fat shakes, yogurt, cottage cheese, lean meats.

 
For the diet to remain well-balanced, you must eat fruits and vegetables. To increase calories, use more fruit juices or dried fruits rather than whole fruits. Choosing calorie-dense vegetables such as corn and peas will also increase the calories in the diet

Recommendations

Objectives for a cancer treatment diet:

• To achieve or maintain optimal nutrition status
• To make the best of the benefits of therapy the patient is receiving
• To reduce symptoms caused by treatment
• To prevent or reverse loss of fat

A registered dietitian is a trained health professional in the area of nutrition and can assist in nutritional planning for people with cancer.



 

Vitamins

Definition

Vitamins are a group of substances essential for normal cell function, growth and development.
There are 13 essential vitamins. That means they are needed for the body to function. They are:

• Vitamin A
• Vitamin C
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K
• Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
• Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
• Vitamin B3 (niacin)
• Pantothenic acid
• Biotin
• Vitamin B6
• Vitamin B12
• Folate (folic acid)

Vitamins are grouped into two categories:

• Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body's fatty tissue.
• Water-soluble vitamins must be used by the body right away. Any left over water-soluble vitamins leave the body through the urine. Vitamin B12 is the only water-soluble vitamin that can be stored in the liver for many years.

Overview & Functions

Each vitamin has specific functions. You can develop health problems (deficiency disease) if you do not get enough of a particular vitamin.
Vitamin A helps form and maintain healthy teeth, bones, soft tissue, mucous membranes, and skin.
Vitamin B6 is also called pyridoxine. The more protein you eat, the more vitamin B6 is needed to help the body use protein. Vitamin B6 helps form red blood cells and maintain brain function, among other things.
Vitamin B12, like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It also helps form red blood cells and maintain the central nervous system.
Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is an antioxidant that promotes healthy teeth and gums. It helps the body absorb iron and maintain healthy tissue. It also promotes wound healing.
Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin," since it is made by the body after being in the sun. Ten to 15 minutes of sunshine 3 times a week is enough to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D. However, many people living in sunny climates still do not make enough vitamin D and need more from their diet or supplements. Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium, which you need for the normal development and maintenance of healthy teeth and bones. It also helps maintain proper blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant also known as tocopherol. It plays a role in the formation of red blood cells and helps the body use vitamin K.

Vitamin K is not listed among the essential vitamins, but without it blood would not stick together (coagulate). Some studies suggest that it helps promote strong bones in the elderly.

Biotin is essential for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, and in the production of hormones and cholesterol.

Niacin is a B vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It is also has cholesterol-lowering effects.

Folate works with vitamin B12 to help form red blood cells. It is necessary for the production of DNA, which controls tissue growth and cell function. Any woman who is pregnant should be sure to get enough folate. Low levels of folate are linked to birth defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folic acid.

Pantothenic acid is essential for the metabolism of food. It is also plays a role in the production of hormones and cholesterol.

Riboflavin (B2) works with the other B vitamins. It is important for body growth and the production of red blood cells.
Thiamine (B1) helps the body cells change carbohydrates into energy. It is also essential for heart function and healthy nerve cells.

Food Sources

FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin A:

• Eggs
• Meat
• Milk
• Cheese
• Cream
• Liver
• Kidney
• Cod
• Halibut fish oil

Vitamin D:

• Cheese
• Butter
• Margarine
• Cream
• Fortified milk
• Fish
• Oysters
• Cereals

Vitamin E:

• Wheat germ
• Corn
• Nuts
• Seeds
• Olives
• Spinach and other green leafy vegetables
• Asparagus
• Vegetable oils and products made from vegetable oils, such as margarine

Vitamin K:

• Cabbage
• Cauliflower
• Spinach
• Soybeans
• Cereals

WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Folate:

• Green, leafy vegetables
• Fortified foods

Niacin (B3):

• Dairy products
• Poultry
• Fish
• Lean meats
• Nuts
• Eggs
• Legumes
• Enriched breads and cereals

Pantothenic acid and biotin

• Eggs
• Fish
• Dairy products
• Whole-grain cereals
• Legumes
• Yeast
• Broccoli and other vegetables in the cabbage family
• White and sweet potatoes
• Lean beef

Thiamine (B1):

• Fortified breads, cereals, and pasta
• Whole grains
• Lean meats
• Fish
• Dried beans
• Peas
• Soybeans
• Dairy products
• Fruits and vegetables

Vitamin B12:

• Meat
• Eggs
• Poultry
• Shellfish
• Milk and milk products

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

• Citrus fruits and juices
• Strawberries
• Tomatoes
• Broccoli
• Turnip and other greens
• Sweet and white potatoes
• Cantaloupe

Most other fruits and vegetables contain some vitamin C; fish and milk contain small amounts.

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine establish recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for vitamins. The recommendations reflect how much of each nutrient you should receive on a daily basis, based on the known nutritional needs of practically all healthy people.
The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.


Specific recommendations for each vitamin depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy)

Side Effects

Many people think that if some is good, a lot is better. This is not always the case. High doses of certain vitamins can be poisonous. Ask your doctor what is best for you.

References

Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Wellness and Prevention. December 2008:35(4);729-747.
Mason JB. Vitamins, trace minerals, and other micronutrients. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 237.

Fruits and vegetables 

 

A healthy diet includes adding�vegetables and fruit every day. Vegetables like broccoli, green beans, leafy greens, zucchini, cauliflower, cabbage, carrots, and tomatoes are low in calories and high in fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Many studies have shown that eating plenty of vegetables is extremely healthy. Try to eat about 3 to 5 servings every day. Fruit is also a good source of fiber, vitamins, and minerals. You should try to eat about 2 to 3 servings of fruit each day.
 

   

Water in diet

Definition

Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen. It is the basis for the fluids of the body.

Overview & Functions

Water makes up more than two-thirds of the weight of the human body. Without water, humans would die in a few days. All the cells and organs need water to function.
Water serves as a lubricant and is the basis of saliva and the fluids surrounding the joints. Water regulates the body temperature through perspiration. It also helps prevent and alleviate constipation by moving food through the intestinal tract.

Food Sources

Some of the water in our body is obtained through foods we eat and some is the byproduct of metabolism. But drinking water is our main, and best, source of water.
We also obtain water through liquid foods and beverages, such as soup, milk, and juices. Alcoholic beverages and beverages containing caffeine (such as coffee, tea, and colas) are not the best choices because they have a diuretic (water-excreting) effect.

Recommendations

Six to eight 8-ounce glasses of water are generally recommended on a daily basis.

Side Effects

If adequate water is not consumed on a daily basis the body fluids will be out of balance, causing dehydration. When dehydration is severe, it can be life-threatening.

Potassium in diet

Definition

Potassium is a mineral involved in electrical and cellular body functions. In the body, potassium is classified as an electrolyte.

Overview & Functions

Potassium is a very important mineral to the human body. It has various roles in metabolism and body functions and is essential for the proper function of all cells, tissues, and organs:

• It assists in the regulation of the acid-base balance.
• It assists in protein synthesis from amino acids and in carbohydrate metabolism.
• It is necessary for the building of muscle and for normal body growth.

Food Sources

Many foods contain potassium. All meats (red meat and chicken) and fish such as salmon, cod, flounder, and sardines are good sources of potassium. Soy products and veggie burgers are also good sources of potassium.
Vegetables including broccoli, peas, lima beans, tomatoes, potatoes (especially their skins), sweet potatoes, and winter squashes are all good sources of potassium.


Fruits that contain significant sources of potassium include citrus fruits, cantaloupe, bananas, kiwi, prunes, and apricots. Dried apricots contain more potassium than fresh apricots.
Milk and yogurt, as well as nuts, are also excellent sources of potassium.
People on dialysis for kidney failure should avoid consuming too many of these potassium-rich foods. These people require specialized diets to avoid excess potassium in the blood

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Center of the Institute of Medicine has established the following recommended dietary intakes for potassium:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 0.4 grams a day (g/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 0.7 g/day

Children and Adolescents

• 1 - 3 years: 3 g/day
• 4 - 8 years: 3.8 g/day
• 9 - 13 years: 4.5 g/day
• 14 - 18 years: 4.7 g/day

Adults

• Age 19 and older: 4.7 g/day

Women who are producing breast milk need slightly higher amounts (5.1 g/day). Ask your doctor what amount is best for you.
Persons who are being treated for hypokalemia need potassium supplements. The doctor will develop a supplementation plan based on each individual's specific needs.

Side Effects

Having too much or too little potassium in the body can have very serious consequences.
Because so many foods contain potassium, too little potassium (potassium deficiency) is rarely caused by inadequate diet. However, even a moderate reduction in the body's potassium levels can lead to salt sensitivity and high blood pressure. The recommended dietary intake of 4.7 gm or higher can slightly lower blood pressure.


A deficiency of potassium (hypokalemia) can happen in people with certain diseases or as a result of taking diuretics (water pills) for the treatment of high blood pressure or heart failure. Additionally, many medications -- such as diuretics, laxatives, and steroids -- can cause a loss of potassium, which occasionally may be very severe. You should have your blood levels of potassium checked from time to time if you take any of these medicines. Diuretics are probably the most common cause of hypokalemia.

A variety of conditions can cause potassium loss from the body. The most common are vomiting and diarrhea. Several rare kidney and adrenal gland disorders may also cause low potassium levels.

For more information on potassium deficiency, see the article on hypokalemia.
Too much potassium in the blood is known as hyperkalemia. Some common causes of this are reduced renal (kidney) function, an abnormal breakdown of protein, and severe infection. The most common cause of hyperkalemia is reduced kidney function, especially in people receiving dialysis for kidney failure. Certain medicines affect the body's ability to get rid of potassium. These include potassium sparing diuretics and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors.
For more information on increased potassium levels, see the article on hyperkalemia.

References

Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water, Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2004.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005: Chapter 8 -- Sodium and Potassium. Accessed June 23, 2008.

Caffeine in the diet

Definition

Caffeine is a substance that exists naturally in certain plants. It can also be produced synthetically and used as an additive in food products. It is a central nervous system stimulant and a diuretic.

Overview & Functions

Caffeine is absorbed and distributed very quickly. After absorption, it passes into the brain.
Caffeine does not accumulate in the bloodstream nor is it stored in the body. It is excreted in the urine many hours after it has been consumed.
Caffeine will not reduce the effects of alcohol, although many people still believe a cup of coffee will "sober-up" an intoxicated person.

 Caffeine may be used as a treatment for migraine headaches and in relieving, for a short time, fatigue or drowsiness.

Food Sources

Caffeine is widely consumed. It is found naturally in the leaves, seeds, and fruits of more than 60 plants, including tea leaves, kola nuts, coffee, and cocoa beans. It is in coffee, tea, chocolate, cocoa and some colas.
Caffeine is frequently added to over-the-counter medications such as pain relievers, appetite suppressants, and cold medicines. Caffeine has no flavor and can be removed from a food by a chemical process called decaffeination.

Recommendations

Three 8 oz. cups of coffee (about 250 milligrams of caffeine) per day is considered an average or moderate amount of caffeine.
Ten 8 oz. cups of coffee per day is considered excessive intake of caffeine.
How much caffeine a child receives should be closely monitored. Although caffeine is safe in moderate amounts, it may negatively affect a child's nutrition. Caffeinated beverages may be replacing nutritious drinks such as milk. A child who consumes caffeine may also eat less, because caffeine suppresses the appetite.



There is no nutritional requirement for caffeine, so it can be completely restricted in a child's diet. Caffeine is a stimulant. Avoiding caffeine may be necessary for a hyperactive child.
If you are pregnant or if you have coronary heart disease or peptic ulcers, your health care provider may recommend that you limit or avoid caffeine intake.
Many drugs will interact with caffeine. Consult with your health care provider or pharmacist about potential interactions with caffeine whenever you take medications.

Side Effects

Excessive caffeine intake can lead to a fast heart rate, excessive urination, nausea, vomiting, restlessness, anxiety, depression, tremors, and difficulty sleeping.
The effect of caffeine on health has been widely studied. In particular, the effects of caffeine on fibrocystic breast disease, heart and blood vessel disease, birth defects, reproductive function, and behavior in children has been closely examined. The American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs says that moderate tea or coffee drinking likely has no negative effective on one's health, as long as the person lives an otherwise healthy lifestyle. However, the organization emphasizes moderate caffeine use.


 Abrupt withdrawal of caffeine may cause headaches, drowsiness, irritability, nausea, vomiting, and other symptoms. Reduce caffeine intake gradually to prevent any symptoms of withdrawal.

Zinc in diet

Definition

Zinc is an important trace mineral. This element is second only to iron in its concentration in the body.

Overview & Functions

Zinc is needed for the body's defensive (immune) system to properly work. It plays a role in cell division, cell growth, wound healing, and the break down of carbohydrates . Zinc is also needed for the senses of smell and taste.

Food Sources

High-protein foods contain high amounts of zinc. Beef, pork, and lamb contain more zinc than fish. The dark meat of a chicken has more zinc than the light meat.
Other good sources of zinc are peanuts, peanut butter, and legumes.
Fruits and vegetables are not good sources, because zinc in plant proteins is not as available for use by the body as the zinc from animal proteins. Therefore, low-protein diets and vegetarian diets tend to be low in zinc.

Recommendations

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins and minerals is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.
The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following dietary intake for zinc:
Infants

• 0 - 6 months: 2 milligrams per day (mg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 3 mg/day

Children

• 1 - 3 years: 3 mg/day
• 4 - 8 years: 5 mg/day
• 9 - 13 years: 8 mg/day

Adolescents and Adults

• Males age 14 and over: 11 mg/day
• Females age 14 to 18 years: 9 mg/day
• Females age 19 and over: 8 mg/day

Specific recommendations depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy). Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk (lactating) need higher amounts. Ask your health care provider which amount is best for you.

Side Effects

Symptoms of zinc deficiency include:

• Frequent infections
• Hypogonadism in males
• Loss of hair
• Poor appetite
• Problems with the sense of taste
• Problems with the sense of smell
• Slow growth
• Trouble seeing in the dark
• Various skin lesions
• Wounds that take a long time to heal

 Zinc supplements in large amounts may cause diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and vomiting, usually within 3 - 10 hours of swallowing the supplements. The symptoms go away within a short period of time after the stopping the supplements.

Protein in diet

Definition

Proteins are complex organic compounds. The basic structure of protein is a chain of amino acids.

Overview & Functions

Every cell in the human body contains protein. It is a major part of the skin, muscles, organs, and glands. Protein is also found in all body fluids, except bile and urine.
You need protein in your diet to help your body repair cells and make new ones. Protein is also important for growth and development during childhood, adolescence, and pregnancy.

Proteins 

 

Protein is an important nutrient that builds muscles and bones and provides energy. Protein can help with weight control because it helps you feel full and satisfied from your meals. The healthiest proteins are the leanest. This means that they have the least fat and calories. The best protein choices are fish or shellfish, skinless chicken or turkey, low-fat or fat-free dairy (skim milk, low-fat cheese), and egg whites or egg substitute. The best red meats are the leanest cuts (loin and tenderloin). Other healthy options are beans, legumes (lentils and peanut butter), and soy foods such as tofu or soymilk.

Food Sources Protein-containing foods are grouped as either complete or incomplete proteins. Complete proteins contain all nine essential amino acids. Complete proteins are found in animal foods such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk, and milk products such as yogurt and cheese. Soybeans are the only plant protein considered to be a complete protein. Incomplete proteins lack one or more of the essential amino acids. Sources of incomplete protein include beans, peas, nuts, seeds, and grain. A small amount of incomplete protein is also found in vegetables. Plant proteins can be combined to provide all of the essential amino acids and form a complete protein. Examples of combined, complete plant proteins are rice and beans, wheat cereal, and corn and beans. Recommendations A nutritionally balanced diet provides adequate protein. Protein supplements are rarely needed by healthy people. Vegetarians are able to get adequate amounts of essential amino by eating a variety of plant proteins. The amount of recommended daily protein depends upon your age and health. Two to three servings of protein-rich food will meet the daily needs of most adults. Side Effects A diet high in meat can contribute to high cholesterol levels or other diseases such as gout. A high-protein diet may also put a strain on the kidneys.

Iron in diet

Definition

Iron is a mineral found in every cell of the body. Iron is considered an essential mineral because it is needed to make part of blood cells.

Overview & Functions

The human body needs iron to make the oxygen-carrying proteins hemoglobin and myoglobin. Hemoglobin is found in red blood cells and myoglobin is found in muscles.
Iron also makes up part of many proteins in the body.

Food Sources

The best sources of iron include:

• Dried beans
• Dried fruits
• Eggs (especially egg yolks)
• Iron-fortified cereals
• Liver
• Lean red meat (especially beef)
• Oysters
• Poultry, dark red meat
• Salmon
• Tuna
• Whole grains

Reasonable amounts of iron are also found in lamb, pork, and shellfish.
Iron from vegetables, fruits, grains, and supplements is harder for the body to absorb. These sources include:

• Dried fruits
  • prunes
  • raisins
  • apricots
• Legumes
  • lima beans
  • soybeans
  • dried beans and peas
  • kidney beans
• Seeds
  • almonds
  • Brazil nuts
• Vegetables
  • broccoli
  • spinach
  • kale
  • collards
  • asparagus
  • dandelion greens
• Whole grains
  • wheat
  • millet
  • oats
  • brown rice

If you mix some lean meat, fish, or poultry with beans or dark leafy greens at a meal, you can improve absorption of vegetable sources of iron up to three times. Foods rich in vitamin C also increase iron absorption.
Some foods reduce iron absorption. For example, commercial black or pekoe teas contain substances that bind to iron so it cannot be used by the body.

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following:
Infants and children

• Younger than 6 months: 0.27 milligrams per day (mg/day)
• 7 months to 1 year: 11 mg/day
• 1 to 3 years: 7 mg/day
• 4 to 8 years: 10 mg/day

Males

• 9 to 13 years: 8 mg/day
• 14 to 18 years: 11 mg/day
• Age 19 and older: 8 mg/day

Females

• 9 to 13 years: 8 mg/day
• 14 to 18 years: 15 mg/day
• 19 to 50 years: 18 mg/day
• 51 and older: 8 mg/day

Women who are pregnant or producing breast milk may need different amounts of iron. Ask your health care provider what is appropriate for you.

Side Effects

LOW IRON LEVELS
The human body stores some iron to replace any that is lost. However, low iron levels over a long period of time can lead to iron deficiency anemia. Symptoms include lack of energy, shortness of breath, headache, irritability, dizziness, or weight loss. For more details on this condition see iron deficiency anemia.


Those at risk for low iron levels include:

• Women who are menstruating, especially if they have heavy periods
• Women who are pregnant or who have just had a baby
• Long-distance runners
• Strict vegetarians
• People with any type of bleeding in the intestines (for example, a bleeding ulcer)
• People who frequently donate blood
• People with gastrointestinal conditions that make it hard to absorb nutrients from food

Babies and young children are at risk for low iron levels if they do not receive the appropriate foods. Babies moving to solid foods should eat iron-rich foods. Infants are born with enough iron to last about six months. An infant's additional iron needs are met by breast milk. Infants that are not breastfed should be given an iron supplement or iron-fortified infant formula.
Children between age 1 and 4 grow rapidly, which uses up iron in the body. They should be given iron-fortified foods or iron supplements. Note: Milk is a very poor source of iron. Children who drink large quantities of milk and avoid other foods may develop "milk anemia." Recommended milk intake is two to three cups per day for toddlers.
Adolescents are more prone to low iron levels because of rapid growth rates and inconsistent eating habits.
TOO MUCH IRON
The genetic disorder called hemochromatosis affects the body's ability to control how much iron is absorbed. This leads to too much iron in the body. Treatment consists of a low-iron diet, no iron supplements, and phlebotomy (blood removal) on a regular basis.
It is unlikely that a person would take too much iron. However, children can sometimes develop iron poisoning by swallowing too many iron supplements. Symptoms of iron poisoning include:

• Fatigue
• Anorexia
• Dizziness
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Headache
• Weight loss
• Shortness of breath
• Grayish color to the skin

Heart disease and diet

Definition

A healthy diet is a major factor in reducing your risk of heart disease.

Overview & Functions

A healthy diet and lifestyle can reduce your risk of:

• Heart disease, heart attacks, and stroke
• Conditions that lead to heart disease, including high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and obesity
• Other chronic health problems, including type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and some forms of cancer

Healthy diet 

 

For a healthy diet, replace unhealthy and fattening foods with healthier alternatives, such as fresh fruits and vegetables.

Recommendations FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Most fruits and vegetables are part of a heart-healthy diet. They are good sources of fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Most are low in fat, calories, sodium, and cholesterol. Eat five or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day. GRAINS Eat low-fat breads, cereals, crackers, rice, pasta, and starchy vegetables (such as peas, potatoes, corn, winter squash, and lima beans). These foods are high in the B vitamins, iron, and fiber. They are also low in fat and cholesterol. Eat six or more servings per day of grain products, including whole grains. Grain products provide fiber, vitamins, minerals, and complex carbohydrates. Be careful about eating too many grains, however. Avoid baked goods such as butter rolls, cheese crackers, and croissants, cream sauces for pasta and vegetables, and cream soups. EATING HEALTHY PROTEIN Meat, poultry, seafood, dried peas, lentils, nuts, and eggs are good sources of protein, B vitamins, iron, and other vitamins and minerals. Avoid duck, goose, marbled meats (such as a ribeye steak), prime cuts of high-fat meats, organ meats such as kidneys and liver, and prepared meats such as sausage, hot dogs, and high-fat lunch meats. Eat no more than 6 cooked ounces of meat, poultry, and fish daily. One serving of these foods should be about the size of a deck of cards on your plate. Trim off all the visible fat before cooking the meat. Eat two servings of fish per week. Cook by baking, broiling, roasting, steaming, boiling, or microwaving rather than deep frying. For the main entree, use less meat or have meatless meals a few times a week. Use smaller amounts of meat to reduce the total fat content of the meal. Use skinless turkey, chicken, fish, or lean red meat to reduce the amount of saturated fat in your diet. You may occasionally eat lean, 3-ounce cuts of red meat. Do not use more than three or four egg yolks per week, including the eggs you use in cooking. Eat less organ meat (such as liver) and shellfish (such as shrimp and lobster) Milk and other dairy products are good sources of protein, calcium, the B vitamins niacin and riboflavin, and vitamins A and D. Use skim or 1% milk. Cheese, yogurt, and buttermilk should be low-fat or non-fat. FATS, OILS, AND CHOLESTEROL A diet high in saturated fat causes cholesterol to build up in your arteries (blood vessels). Cholesterol is a soft, waxy substance that can cause clogged or blocked arteries. This puts you at risk for heart attack, stroke, and other major health problems. Avoid or limit foods that are high in saturated fats. Limit total fat intake to 25 - 35% of your total daily calories. Keep saturated fats to only 10% of your total daily calories. Foods with a lot of saturated fats are animal products such as butter, cheese, whole milk, ice cream, sour cream, lard, and fatty meats such as bacon. Some vegetable oils (coconut, palm, and palm kernal oils) also contain saturated fats. These fats are solid at room temperature. Use no more than 5 - 8 teaspoons of fats or oils per day for salads, cooking, and baking. Eat less than 300 mg of dietary cholesterol each day. (One egg yolk contains an average of 213 mg of cholesterol.) Some fats are better choices than others, but you should still use them in moderate amounts. Think about the following when picking a margarine: Choose soft margarine (tub or liquid) over harder stick forms. Choose margarines with liquid vegetable oil as the first ingredient. Even better, choose "light" margarines that list water as the first ingredient. These are even lower in saturated fat. Avoid hydrogenated and partially hydrogenated fats (read the ingredient labels). Trans fatty acids are unhealthy fats that form when vegetable oil hardens in a process called hydrogenation. They are often used to keep foods fresh for a long time, and for cooking in fast food restaurants. Trans fats can raise LDL ("bad") cholesterol levels in your blood. They can also lower your HDL ("good") cholesterol levels. Avoid fried foods, commercial baked goods (donuts, cookies, and crackers), processed foods, and hard margarines. OTHER TIPS TO KEEP YOUR HEART HEALTHY Talking to a registered dietitian is helpful. The American Heart Association has local chapters in every state. They are also an excellent resource for information on heart disease. Maintain your ideal body weight and balance the number of calories you eat with the number you use each day. You can ask a dietitian or a health care professional to help you determine these numbers. Limit your intake of foods high in calories or low in nutrition, including foods like soft drinks and candy that contain a lot of sugar. Eat less than 2,400 mg of salt per day. Cut down on salt by reducing the amount of salt you add to food at the tabel. Also limit prepared foods that have salt added to them, such as canned soups and vegetables, cured meats, and some frozen meals. Always check the nutrition label for the sodium content per serving. Exercise regularly. For example, walk for at least 30 minutes a day. Limit the amount of alcohol you drink. Women should have no more than one alcoholic drink (such as red wine) per day. Men should not have more than two alcoholic drinks each day. References Heimburger DC. Nutrition's interface with health and disease. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2007:chap 232. Mosca L, Banka CL, Benjamin EJ, Berra K, Bushnell C, Dolor RJ, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention in women: 2007 update. Circulation. 2007;115:1481-1501.

Folic acid in diet

Overview & Functions

Folic acid works along with vitamin B12 and vitamin C to help the body break down, use, and create new proteins. The vitamin helps form red blood cells and helps produce DNA, the building block of the human body, which carries genetic information.
Folic acid also helps tissues grow and cells work. Taking the right amount of folic acid before and during pregnancy helps prevent certain birth defects, including spina bifida.

Vitamin B9 benefits 

 

Folate (folic acid) is necessary for the production of red blood cells and for the synthesis of DNA (which controls heredity and is used to guide the cell in its daily activities). Folic acid also helps with tissue growth and cell function. In addition, it helps to increase appetite when needed and stimulates the formation of digestive acids.

Vitamin B9 source    Pregnant women who are thinking of becoming pregnant or who are pregnant often require additional supplementation of folic acid. Adequate folic acid is important for pregnant women because it has been shown to prevent some kinds of birth defects, including neural tube defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folic acid to help prevent these kinds of serious birth defects. Food Sources Folate occurs naturally in the following foods: Beans and legumes Citrus fruits and juices Wheat bran and other whole grains Dark green leafy vegetables Poultry, pork, shellfish Liver (Folic acid is the man-made form of folate found in supplements.) Side Effects Folic acid deficiency may cause poor growth, gray hair, swollen tongue (glossitis), mouth ulcers, peptic ulcer, and diarrhea. It may also lead to certain types of anemias. Too much folic acid usually doesn't cause harm, because the vitamin is regularly removed from the body through urine. References Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, PantothenicAcid, Biotin, and Choline. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998. Hamrick I, Counts SH. Vitamin and mineral supplements. Wellness and Prevention. December 2008:35(4);729-747.

Fast foods

Definition

Fast foods are quick, reasonably priced, and readily available alternatives to home cooking. While convenient and inexpensive for a busy lifestyle, fast foods are typically high in calories, fat, saturated fat, sugar, and salt.
Fast food chains and restaurants have responded to the public's increasing awareness about nutrition and have attempted to help people concerned about health. For example, they now make ingredient and nutrition information available on their menus. Despite these changes, however, in order to maintain a healthy diet, it is necessary to choose fast foods carefully.

Overview & Functions

Most people today have less time to select, prepare and eat food than their grandparents did. Fast foods are very appealing because they are widely available and inexpensive.

Fast food 

  Fast foods are quick, reasonably priced, and readily available alternatives to home cooking. While convenient and economical for a busy lifestyle, fast foods are typically high in calories, fat, saturated fat, sugar, and salt and may put people at risk for becoming overweight.

Food Sources

Fast food items have been modified to reflect consumers' concern about the fat content of their food. Many fast food restaurant have switched from beef tallow or lard to hydrogenated vegetable oils for frying.
Some restaurants offer low calorie choices like salad bars and assorted take-out salads with low calorie dressing, low-fat milkshakes, whole grain buns, lean meats, and grilled chicken items.

Recommendations

Knowing the number of calories and the amount of fat and salt in the fast food can help you decide which items are better choices. Many fast food restaurants have published the nutrient content of their foods. These are often available on request. You can plan a convenient yet healthful meal with the following information.


Make better choices when eating at fast food restaurants. In general eat at places that offer a variety of salads, soups, and vegetables.
Choose smaller-sized servings. Consider splitting some fast food items to reduce the amount of calories and fat. Ask for a "doggy bag." or simply leave the excess on your plate.
To help supplement and balance a fast food meal, make nutritious options such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and yogurt available as snacks.
When chosen carefully and not used in excess, fast foods can offer reasonably good quality nutrition. By being aware of what and how much you eat, and paying attention to how it affects your health, you can set a good example for your children. As always, variety and moderation are the key principles in providing a healthy diet for children as well as adults.
Consider these general tips:
PIZZA
Ask for less cheese, and choose low-fat toppings such as onions, mushrooms, green peppers, tomatoes, and other vegetables.
SANDWICHES
Healthier choices include regular or junior-size lean roast beef, turkey, or chicken breast, or lean ham. Extras, such as, bacon, cheese, or mayo will increase the fat and calories of the item. Select whole-grain breads over high-fat croissants or biscuits.
HAMBURGERS
A single, plain meat patty without the cheese and sauces is the best choice. Ask for extra lettuce, tomatoes, and onions. Limit your intake of french fries.
MEAT, CHICKEN, AND FISH
Look for items that are roasted, grilled, baked, or broiled. Avoid meats that are breaded or fried. Ask for heavy sauces, such as gravy, on the side. Better still, avoid heavy sauces and dressings altogether.
SALADS
High-fat food items such as dressing, bacon bits, and shredded cheese add fat and calories. Choose lettuce and assorted vegetables to make up the majority of your salad. Select low-fat or fat-free salad dressings, vinegar, or lemon juice when available. Ask for the salad dressing on the side.
DESSERTS
Choose low-fat frozen yogurt, fruit ices, sorbets, and sherbets. Occasional indulgent desserts add fun to a carefully selected, well-balanced diet.

Side Effects

Maintaining nutritional balance is not easy with fast food, because there is no control over how they are cooked. For example, some are cooked with a lot of oil and butter, and there may be no option if you want your selection with reduced fat.
The large portions often served at restaurants also encourage overeating. Fast food also tend to lack fresh fruits and vegetables.

 In general, people with high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart disease must be much more careful about choosing fast food, due to the high content of fat, sodium, and sugar.

Diet and disease

Definition

There are nutritional and dietary elements that have proven relationships to certain diseases or conditions. For additional information on FDA-approved health claims, refer to nutrition labeling.

Information

This article discusses the following:

1. Calcium and osteoporosis
2. Fiber and cancer
3. Fruits, vegetables, and cancer
4. Fiber and coronary heart disease
5. Fat and cancer
6. Saturated fat, cholesterol, and coronary heart disease
7. Sodium and hypertension
8. Alcohol
9. Nitrates and cancer

1. CALCIUM AND OSTEOPOROSIS:
Calcium is one of the most important minerals for human life. Your body uses it to form and maintain healthy bones and teeth. Calcium also plays a vital role in nerve conduction, muscle contraction, and blood clotting.


Osteoporosis is a disease in which the calcium content of bones is very low. In this disease, calcium and phosphorus, which are normally present in the bones, become reabsorbed back into the body. This process results in brittle, fragile bones that are easily broken.
Getting enough calcium in the diet throughout childhood and puberty is one key to preventing osteoporosis. A person who does not get enough calcium growing up will not have sturdy bones. An older person who consumes a low-calcium diet is also at great risk for osteoporosis.
The recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for calcium are based on age, gender, and hormonal factors. Many foods, such as some vegetables, contain calcium. However, milk and dairy products are some of the best food sources. Calcium may also be obtained by taking supplements.
2. FIBER AND CANCER:
Dietary fiber is found in plant foods, where it occurs in two forms: soluble and insoluble. Soluble fiber attracts water and turns to gel during digestion. This process slows digestion and the rate of nutrient absorption from the stomach and intestine.
Soluble fiber is found in oat bran, barley, nuts, seeds, dried beans and legumes, lentils, peas, and some fruits and vegetables. Insoluble fiber also adds bulk (fiber) to the stool. It is found in wheat bran, vegetables, and whole grains.
A diet high in fiber is thought to reduce the risk of cancers of the rectum and colon.
3. FRUITS, VEGETABLES, AND CANCER:
Eating more fruits and vegetables helps provide a good supply of fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, beta carotene and other carotenoids, and valuable substances called phytochemicals. Studies have shown that a diet high in these nutrients and fiber can reduce the risk of developing cancers of the stomach, colon rectum, esophagus, larynx, and lung.
Vitamin C and beta carotene, which forms vitamin A, are antioxidants. As such, they protect body cells from oxidation, a process that can lead to cell damage and may play a role in cancer.
In addition to nutrients that are needed for normal metabolism, plant foods also contain phytochemicals, plant chemicals that may affect human health. There are hundreds of phytochemicals, and their exact role in promoting health is still uncertain. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that phytochemicals may help protect against cancer.
To get these benefits, eat more fruits and vegetables that contain vitamins A and C and beta carotene. These include dark-green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, collards, and turnip greens. Citrus fruits, such as oranges, grapefruit, and tangerines are also high in antioxidants. Other red, yellow, and orange fruits and vegetables, or their juices are also healthful choices. Note: Juicing removes the fiber.
4. FIBER AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE:
Some fiber, especially soluble fiber, binds to lipids such as cholesterol. The fiber then carries the lipids out of the body through the stool. This lowers the concentration of lipids in the blood and may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease.
5. FAT AND CANCER:
A diet high in fat has been shown to increase the risk of cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate. A high-fat diet does not necessarily cause cancer. Rather, it may promote the development of cancer in people who are exposed to cancer-causing agents.
A diet high in fat may promote cancer by causing the body to secrete more of certain hormones that create a favorable environment for certain types of cancer. Breast cancer is one of these hormone-influenced cancers. High-fat diets also may change the characteristics of the cells to make them more vulnerable to cancer-causing agents.
To reduce fat in the diet, choose lean cuts of beef, lamb, and pork as well as skinless poultry and fish. Baking, broiling, poaching, and steaming are recommended cooking methods. Choose skim or low-fat milk and dairy products, as well as low-fat salad dressings.
6. SATURATED FAT, CHOLESTEROL, AND CORONARY HEART DISEASE:
Eating too much saturated fat is one of the major risk factors for heart disease. A diet high in saturated fat causes cholesterol, a soft, waxy substance, to build up in the arteries. Eventually, the arteries harden and narrow. The result is an increased pressure in the arteries as well as strain on the heart to maintain adequate blood flow throughout the body.
Because of its high calorie content, too much dietary fat also increases the risk of heart disease in that it increases the likelihood that a person will become obese. Obesity is another risk factor for heart disease.
7. SODIUM AND HYPERTENSION:
Sodium is a mineral that helps the body regulate blood pressure. Sodium is also commonly known as salt. It also plays a role in the proper functioning of cell membranes, muscles, and nerves. Sodium concentration in the body is mainly controlled by the kidneys, adrenal glands, and the pituitary gland near the brain.
The balance between dietary intake and kidney excretion through urine determines how much salt you have in your body. Only a small amount of salt is lost through your stools or sweat. The more salt your body holds, the more fluid the body keeps (retains), and vice versa.
Sodium-sensitive individuals may experience high blood pressure from too much sodium in the diet. The American Heart Association has developed specific guidelines for sodium intake. Dietary changes may help control high blood pressure. Salt (sodium) intake may have little effect in persons without high blood pressure, but it may have a profound effect in sodium-sensitive individuals. Blood pressure is often controlled by diuretics that cause sodium excretion in the urine.
8. ALCOHOL:
Alcohol use increases the risk of liver cancer. When combined with smoking, alcohol intake also increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, throat, larynx, and esophagus. In addition, alcohol intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in women.
Alcohol is processed by the liver into energy for the body. Continued and excessive use of alcohol can damage the liver in various ways, including the development of a fatty liver. A fatty liver can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
Alcohol can damage the lining of the small intestine and stomach, where most nutrients are digested. As a result, alcohol can impair the absorption of essential nutrients. Alcohol also increases the body's need for some nutrients, and interferes with the absorption and storage of other nutrients.
Continued and excessive use of alcohol can result in an increase in blood pressure. Chronic heavy drinking also can cause damage to the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy). In addition, stroke is associated with both chronic heavy drinking and binge drinking.
If you choose to drink alcohol, do so in moderation -- no more than 2 drinks per day for a man, 1 per day for a woman.
9. NITRATES AND CANCER:
Countries in which people eat a lot of salt-cured, smoked, and nitrite-cured foods have a high rate of cancer of the stomach and esophagus. Examples of such foods include bacon, ham, hot dogs, and salt-cured fish.
Eat salted, smoked, or cured foods only on occasion.
RESOURCES:

• The American Cancer Society is an excellent source of information on cancer prevention. www.cancer.org
• The American Dietetic Association provides sound dietary advice on a wide range of topics. www.eatright.org
• The American Heart Association provides dietary guidelines aimed at reducing the risk of heart disease and certain contributors to heart disease, such as high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and obesity. www.americanheart.org
• The National Cancer Institute's CancerNet is a government gateway to the latest, most accurate information on cancer prevention. www.cancer.gov
• The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute provides trustworthy information on preventing heart disease and cardiovascular risk factors. www.www.nhlbi.nih.gov/
• The National Osteoporosis Foundation is a good source of information on osteoporosis prevention. www.nof.org

References

Kushi LH, et al. American Cancer Society guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin. 2006;56:254-281.
Lichtenstein AH, et al. AHA Scientific Statement. Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation. 2006;114:82-96.

Osteoporosis 

  The bone disease osteoporosis is caused by more bone cells being resorbed than being deposited. This imbalance results in a progressive loss of bone density and a thinning of bone tissue. Osteoporotic bones are more porous and therefore more vulnerable to fracture.

Cholesterol producers 

  Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like material that is found in all parts of the body. It comes from two sources: our liver produces it, and we consume it in meat and dairy products.

Phytochemicals 

  Plants provide many beneficial nutrients (phytochemicals) which may protect against cancer. Isothiocyanates (found in broccoli, cauliflower and brussel sprouts) may suppress tumor growth and hormone production. Flavonoids (apples, grapefruit, red wine, etc.), soy and lycopene (found in tomatoes) also demonstrate protection against cancer.

Selenium - antioxidant

  Selenium is an antioxidant which seems to inhibit cell proliferation. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) of selenium is 70 ug (micrograms) for men, 55 ug for women.